Table 12 Health adversity risk dyads: examples

HealthTech

Already unhealthy, unskilled, or socio-economically or otherwise disadvantaged groups don’t have the same access to technology (a) potentially caused by access to digital health tech or health information mediated by technology in various ways [131]

2022

HealthEcon

Poor health leads to lower socio-economic status if health conditions limit workforce participation which, in turn, results in job loss [70]. (b) Poor health generates costs for employers, and according to the CDC, 90% of the nation’s $4.1 trillion annual healthcare costs are for patients with chronic diseases [21]

2017

HealthGov

Poor health contributes to reduced income, creating a negative feedback loop (‘the health-poverty trap’) which affects voting behavior and turnout, and democratic engagement [19, 130]

2019

HealthSoc

The quality and quantity of individuals’ social relationships have been linked not only to mental health but also to both morbidity and mortality comparable in effect to well-established mortality risk factors [58]

2010

HealthNat

Unhealthy human behavior both at the individual level (household pollution, burning fossil fuels, consuming cellulose), organizational (industrial waste, oil, and chemical spills), city (sewage, wastewater treatment plants), and societal level (overpopulation) negatively impacts the natural environment, triggering climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, undrinkable water, and other negative effects on habitats, plants and wildlife, including disrupting reproduction, immune systems, or causing disease [1]

2009

H²

Cumulative early exposure to health adversity (for example psychosocial adversity) within the family is a strong risk factor for later childhood health problems that often co-occur, including ADHD and autism, which means family-based or other genetically informative designs may help explain etiology [62]

2023