Table 2 Innovation system functions (based on the work of Hekkert et al. [48]) in the different scenarios
From: Innovation policy and international relations: directions for EU diplomacy
Functions | Populism and protectionism | Innovation as global public good | Bottom-up innovation |
|---|---|---|---|
1. Entrepreneurial discovery | - Strong focus on national industry capabilities and collaboration - Protective/defensive against foreign attacks on IPR, markets, human resources, etc. | - Develop international value networks - Develop strong localized ecosystems in international context | - Focus on entrepreneurship - Learning by doing/using - Generic ecosystem-oriented policies - Local needs and initiatives - Activism |
2. Knowledge development | - Not a high priority - Training/skills in existing industries | - Strengthening “open science” and international collaborative programs - Seeking complementarities | - Broad science and technology education |
3. Knowledge diffusion (networks) | - Support for diffusion in national industries - Seeking international collaboration only in function of national strengths | - Exchange programs - Sharing IPR etc. in collaborative ventures | - Business led diffusion in sectoral or regional ecosystems - International diffusion in function of building markets |
4. Guidance of the search (role of national priority setting) | - Nationally defined and supported missions - International intelligence | - Focus on global challenges thinking - Benchmark international competitiveness | - No strong guidance |
5. Market formation | - Transactional approach to international access to markets - Self-interest guides taxation, regulation and standards - Nationally oriented public procurement | - Global public and public/private initiatives - Work towards a global “level-playing-field” in business led innovation | - Business led and user-led - Allow for experimentation - Allow new models (e.g. sharing, buy local) - Focus on international market access |
6. Resources mobilization (budgets, finance) | - Likely decline - Entirely driven by national interests and policy goals | - International collaboration and pooling of resources - Strengthening of global governance institutions | - No strong national or international directive resources policies - Generic human capital strategies |
7. Creation of legitimacy; fighting resistance to change | - May range from anti-innovation attitude (reduced innovation policy actions) to aggressive national interest strategy | - Building support for global challenges - Spreading innovation thinking and behaviour (including values and policies) | - Business led (policy focus on boundary conditions) - Actions related to opening markets - Support socialization |